The First Code Talkers: Native American Communicators in World War I. William C. Meadows. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021.
William C. Meadows is the accomplished author of six distinctive books on Native Americans. Meadows' newest book, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communicators in World War I is an academic text that argues for recognition of the Choctaw Code Talkers during the First World War. Many are familiar with the Navajo Code Talkers from the Second World War, but few know of the Choctaw Nation Code Talkers of the First World War.
Meadows has written a much-needed addition to the literature of the First World War, the goal of his book is to call attention to the first code talkers, who have been overshadowed by the code talkers of World War II. This aim was achieved by asking and then answering the following questions: “First, why were Native Americans chosen as code talkers? Second, what made them successful? Third, were they effective and to what extent did their service contribute to the end of the war? Fourth, what impact did they have on the U.S. Military?”[1] These questions are the main drivers of Meadows' recognition of the critical work of Native American soldiers during the First World War. Meadows’ book focuses on the details of individuals and their influence on the Choctaw Nation, such as their experience at Indian boarding schools prior to entering the military. Meadows states that the boarding school experience for Native Americans was in many ways not that different from military life. The students learned English and were punished when they spoke in their native tongue.
“Native Americans served as secure communicators on the frontiers in two world wars. In that role, they provided protection for tactical voice communication to foil enemy eavesdroppers. Their skillful manipulation of language gave U.S. forces a level of security and a speed of secure communications that otherwise would not have been possible. The actions and innovations of the Native American Code Talkers in combat saved thousands of lives and enabled the success of many operations. The induction of Native American Code Talkers into the NSA/CSS Hall of Honor is intended to remember all code talkers, known and unknown.”[2]
Meadows' book is meant not only to tell a story, but also as a reference for researchers, including four appendices with timelines and detailed biographies for quick reference.
The First Code Talkers is different from other academic books in part because of its singular focus on the Choctaw Nation and the underlying notion of recognition. The activities of this little-known group set the precedent for the use of the Navajo Code Talkers in World War II. Thomas Britten authored American Indians in World War I: At War and at Home in 1999 which covers some of the same subject matter as Meadows’ book, though it does not compare to the level of detail offered in this new volume. Britten and Meadows' books do overlap on the question of whether Native Americans should automatically be citizens. Both authors concurred that the consensus among Americans was that Native Americans were not citizens. Meadows stated that according to the Burke Act of 1906 the United States government was given the discretion to grant citizenship to Indigenous Americans.[3] Britten stated that by 1917 over one third of Native Americans were not citizens.[4] Generally, Britten’s book was an overview of the cultural history of American Indians before, during, and after the First World War. Britten’s book is for the generalist reader, whereas Meadows' book is meant not only to tell a story, but also as a reference for researchers, including four appendices with timelines and detailed biographies for quick reference.
Meadows focuses on the original eight Choctaw Native Americans soldiers, who successfully communicated over an unsecured radio transmitter during active combat in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive during 26-28 October 1918.[5] Meadows writes at great length about the actions and lives of individual Native Americans of the Choctaw Nation and supplies the reader with the archival documentation to support his research.
…the Choctaw Nation soldiers were present in great numbers at the right place and time to address critical communication obstacles that their officers were desperate to find solutions for.
The combat actions of Company E and F of the 142nd Infantry Regiment, 36th Infantry Division are recounted in detail in the book. Meadows' overall interpretation and assessment of the archival documents from the 36th Infantry Division, led him to conclude the Choctaw Nation soldiers were present in great numbers at the right place and time to address critical communication obstacles that their officers were desperate to find solutions for. The original eight Choctaw Nation soldiers initially served in two different companies. Colonel Bloor, the 142d Regimental Commander, made the decision to use the Choctaw Nation soldiers under the recommendation from Captain E.W. Horner.[6] This was an “unplanned, opportune discovery that occurred near the end of the war.”[7] Bloor made a leadership decision would have profound impacts on two world wars.
Meadows identified eight soldiers that used their native language of Choctaw at command posts to relay information between company, battalion, and regimental levels. The real gem from this section of the book was the innovation that was quickly formulated and disseminated. After the 36th Infantry Division was pulled off the front lines, the decision was made to train more Choctaw Nation soldiers and their numbers soon grew to 20. In this manner, Meadows discussed the innovation that would literally lay the groundwork for the use of Native Americans as code talkers in the Second World War. “Beyond saving lives in World War I, the greatest contribution of WWI Native American code talkers is arguably the precedent that they set and the expanded use of the strategy in World War II.”[8]
The First Code Talkers goes beyond the battlefield. Of the original eight code talkers, Private Mitchell Bobb was the first to pass away in 1922 and Otis Leader passed away on 26 March 1961 in Oklahoma. Leader lived the longest of the original eight. Of the Native American soldiers Meadows could identify with proper documentation, he recounts the awards that each earned and wrote about their lives after the war providing the reader with a deeper connection to these standout Native American soldiers. Meadows further detailed work that happened later, such as lobbying the U.S. Congress—after these Native American soldiers passed away—to give them the recognition they deserved.
Meadows' writing style and strategy connects the reader with the individual Native American soldiers on a personal level, drawing together a whole picture of their wartime actions and post-war lives presenting a captivating and intriguing story.
The United States Congress awarded the Choctaw Native Americans the Congressional Gold Medal posthumously on November 20, 2020.[9] Of the many fine examples from Meadows' book, Otis Leader stands out due in part to his international recognition from the French government. Leader’s portrait still hangs to this day in the Army Museum in France, captioned as the “Ideal American soldier.”[10] Furthermore, Otis Leader was recognized by General Pershing as “one of the war’s greatest fighting machines.”[11] After the war, Leader was offered a movie deal paying him $500 a week that he turned down.[12] Meadows' writing style and strategy connects the reader with the individual Native American soldiers on a personal level, drawing together a whole picture of their wartime actions and post-war lives presenting a captivating and intriguing story.
“In 2014, the eighth grade class of Nellie Garone at Mannsville School in Mansville, Oklahoma, spent a year studying Joseph Oklahombi, resulting in the focus of a project for the National History Day project. Garone became intrigued when she saw a painting of Oklahombi on a wall during a baby shower. Following her own research, she began to learn more about Oklahombi and presented the topic to her class, who at the time had never heard of him. Struck by his contributions and bravery, they wondered why he had not been awarded the United States’ highest military honor, the Congressional Medal of Honor. The boys just could not figure out how he did not receive the Medal of Honor. They looked at all of his accomplishments and how he served his country heroically and they felt like he deserved more recognition than he got at the time.”[13]
Meadows devotes time to code talkers from other Native American Nations including the Cherokee, the Comanche, the Lakota, and the Winnebago Ho-Chaunk in his effort to give credit to the first documented use of code talkers, which he places as early as 21 June 1918, though the Choctaw Code Talkers are the most heavily documented code talkers from the First World War. Some of the smaller nuanced arguments within Meadows' book center around the point of code talking versus language speaking. Code talking is defined as a system of secret message transmissions not limited to language or speech. Whereas, language speaking is the use of a language that others cannot decipher. In closing, Meadows' book adds value to an understudied area of the First World War. Meadows conducted research at multiple archives across the United States and extensively used newspaper articles to support some of the less documented points in his book.
The First Code Talkers is firmly structured and well researched documentation of this pathfinding group of Native Americans.[14] Meadows' book is meant for readers who are familiar with the major and minor battlefield engagements of the First World War and will resonate with cultural history, intelligence, and military history readers. Delivering combat scenes and deeply researched documentation, The First Code Talkers cements the argument for recognition of the Choctaw Code Talkers’ actions. Meadows succinctly accomplished his goal to write about the actions of eight Choctaw American soldiers during the toughest fighting of the closing days of The First World War.
David Retherford earned his undergraduate degree from the University of Florida and a master’s degree from the University of Birmingham. He's currently researching American intelligence gathering during the First World War. David is a member of The Strategy Bridge Communications Team.
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Header Image: “Choctaw Telephone Squad,” (World War I Codetalkers), from the Wanamaker Collection. From right, E. H. Horner, James Davenport, James Edwards, Calvin Wilson, Mitchell Bobbs, and Taylor Lewis. Camp Merrit, New Jersey, 1919. (Wanamaker Collection/Mathers Museum of World Cultures)
Notes:
[1] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 198.
[2] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 220.
[3] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 238.
[4] Thomas Britten, American Indians in World War I: At war and at Home (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 52.
[5] Thomas Britten, American Indians in World War I: At war and at Home (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 60,78.
[6] Thomas Britten, American Indians in World War I: At war and at Home (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 60,78.
[7] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 134.
[8] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 251.
[9] Joseph Oklahombi, Calvin Wilson, Robert Taylor, Ben Carterby, Solomon Louis, Albert Billy, Pete Maytubby, James Edwards, Noel Johnson, Tobias Frazier, Joe Davenport, George Davenport, Mitchell Bobb, Ben Hampton, Walter Veach, Otis Leader, Ben Colbert, Jeff Nelson, and Victor Brown were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal on November 20, 2020. https://www.choctawnation.com/news-events/press-media/congressional-gold-medals-awarded-honor-code-talkers
[10] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 165.
[11] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 261.
[12] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 155.
[13] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 217.
[14] William Meadows, The First Code Talkers: Native American Communications in World War I (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2021), 209.